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References

Every clip on the Soil science page carries a short claim. This page carries the proof: the textbooks, papers, standards and lab guides each clip rests on, listed in Harvard style and grouped the same way as the clips. Where a clip rests on general soil science rather than one paper, the reference is the standard text. Where a DOI or publisher page exists, the citation links to it. The references for our medical cannabis and indoor growing clips sit alongside the soil ones; the science is the same.

Soil growing

Soil structure

  • Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R. (2016) The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edn. Harlow: Pearson. Chapter 4, soil architecture.
  • Six, J., Bossuyt, H., Degryze, S. and Denef, K. (2004) 'A history of research on the link between (micro)aggregates, soil biota, and soil organic matter dynamics', Soil and Tillage Research, 79(1), pp. 7-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2004.03.008

Soil temperature is the clock

  • Sullivan, D.M. and Andrews, N. (2019) Estimating Plant-Available Nitrogen Release from Organic Fertilisers, OSU Extension EM 9235. Corvallis: Oregon State University. https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/em9235
  • Lazicki, P., Geisseler, D. and Lloyd, M. (2020) 'Nitrogen mineralization from organic amendments is variable but predictable', Journal of Environmental Quality, 49(2), pp. 483-495. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeq2.20030

Cover crops are a nitrogen bank

Water deep, water seldom

  • Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R. (2016) The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edn. Harlow: Pearson. Chapter 5, soil water, and Chapter 6, soil and the hydrologic cycle.

Indoor living soil growing

Living soil media: keep it evenly moist

  • Raviv, M., Lieth, J.H. and Bar-Tal, A. (eds) (2019) Soilless Culture: Theory and Practice, 2nd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters on physical properties of growing media and irrigation.

Dry pockets: roots you never fed

  • Raviv, M., Lieth, J.H. and Bar-Tal, A. (eds) (2019) Soilless Culture: Theory and Practice, 2nd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters on physical properties of growing media and irrigation.

Never let it stall

  • Chandra, S., Lata, H. and ElSohly, M.A. (eds) (2017) Cannabis sativa L.: Botany and Biotechnology. Cham: Springer. Chapter on photosynthetic response and environmental stress.

Mycorrhizae go on the roots

  • Smith, S.E. and Read, D.J. (2008) Mycorrhizal Symbiosis, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press.

Defoliation: when, how much, why

  • Danziger, N. and Bernstein, N. (2021) 'Plant architecture manipulation increases cannabinoid standardization in "drug-type" medical cannabis', Industrial Crops and Products, 167, 113528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.113528

Environmental control

Keep the air moving in one direction

  • Nobel, P.S. (2020) Physicochemical and Environmental Plant Physiology, 5th edn. London: Academic Press. Chapter 7, boundary layers.
  • Kitaya, Y., Tsuruyama, J., Shibuya, T., Yoshida, M. and Kiyota, M. (2003) 'Effects of air current speed on gas exchange in plant leaves and plant canopies', Advances in Space Research, 31(1), pp. 177-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-1177(02)00747-0

Oscillating fans wreck your airflow

  • Nobel, P.S. (2020) Physicochemical and Environmental Plant Physiology, 5th edn. London: Academic Press. Chapter 7, boundary layers.
  • Kitaya, Y., Tsuruyama, J., Shibuya, T., Yoshida, M. and Kiyota, M. (2003) 'Effects of air current speed on gas exchange in plant leaves and plant canopies', Advances in Space Research, 31(1), pp. 177-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-1177(02)00747-0

Canopy wind speed: why 1 m/s

  • Nobel, P.S. (2020) Physicochemical and Environmental Plant Physiology, 5th edn. London: Academic Press. Chapter 7, boundary layers.
  • Kitaya, Y., Tsuruyama, J., Shibuya, T., Yoshida, M. and Kiyota, M. (2003) 'Effects of air current speed on gas exchange in plant leaves and plant canopies', Advances in Space Research, 31(1), pp. 177-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-1177(02)00747-0
  • Kitaya, Y., Shibuya, T., Yoshida, M. and Kiyota, M. (2004) 'Effects of air velocity on photosynthesis of plant canopies under elevated CO2 levels in a plant culture system', Advances in Space Research, 34(7), pp. 1466-1469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2003.08.031

VPD and temperature by stage

  • Grossiord, C. et al. (2020) 'Plant responses to rising vapor pressure deficit', New Phytologist, 226(6), pp. 1550-1566. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16485
  • Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D. and Smith, M. (1998) Crop Evapotranspiration, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56. Rome: FAO. Equations for saturation vapour pressure. https://www.fao.org/3/x0490e/x0490e00.htm

VPD swings lower your yield

  • Grossiord, C. et al. (2020) 'Plant responses to rising vapor pressure deficit', New Phytologist, 226(6), pp. 1550-1566. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16485
  • Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D. and Smith, M. (1998) Crop Evapotranspiration, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56. Rome: FAO. Equations for saturation vapour pressure. https://www.fao.org/3/x0490e/x0490e00.htm

Measure VPD at the leaf

  • Grossiord, C. et al. (2020) 'Plant responses to rising vapor pressure deficit', New Phytologist, 226(6), pp. 1550-1566. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16485
  • Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D. and Smith, M. (1998) Crop Evapotranspiration, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56. Rome: FAO. Equations for saturation vapour pressure. https://www.fao.org/3/x0490e/x0490e00.htm

Calibrate your humidity meter

  • Greenspan, L. (1977) 'Humidity fixed points of binary saturated aqueous solutions', Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, 81A(1), pp. 89-96. (Sodium chloride: 75.3% RH at 25 C.) https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.081A.011

Temperature sets the speed limit

  • Rodriguez-Morrison, V., Llewellyn, D. and Zheng, Y. (2021) 'Cannabis yield, potency, and leaf photosynthesis respond differently to increasing light levels in an indoor environment', Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 646020. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.646020
  • Chandra, S., Lata, H., Khan, I.A. and ElSohly, M.A. (2008) 'Photosynthetic response of Cannabis sativa L. to variations in photosynthetic photon flux densities, temperature and CO2 conditions', Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants, 14(4), pp. 299-306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-008-0027-x

Run a greenhouse on DLI, not PPFD

Where the dehumidifier goes

  • Nobel, P.S. (2020) Physicochemical and Environmental Plant Physiology, 5th edn. London: Academic Press. Chapter 7, boundary layers.
  • ASHRAE (2021) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals. Atlanta: ASHRAE. Chapter on psychrometrics.

Microbes

Soil biology

  • Lowenfels, J. and Lewis, W. (2010) Teaming with Microbes: The Organic Gardener's Guide to the Soil Food Web, revised edn. Portland: Timber Press.
  • Bardgett, R.D. and van der Putten, W.H. (2014) 'Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem functioning', Nature, 515, pp. 505-511. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13855

How we make our inoculant

  • Ingham, E.R. (2005) The Compost Tea Brewing Manual, 5th edn. Corvallis: Soil Foodweb Inc.

The root's bodyguards

  • Harman, G.E., Howell, C.R., Viterbo, A., Chet, I. and Lorito, M. (2004) 'Trichoderma species, opportunistic, avirulent plant symbionts', Nature Reviews Microbiology, 2, pp. 43-56. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro797
  • Hashem, A., Tabassum, B. and Abd Allah, E.F. (2019) 'Bacillus subtilis: a plant-growth promoting rhizobacterium that also impacts biotic stress', Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 26(6), pp. 1291-1297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2019.05.004

Chlorine stops at the surface

Biostimulants

Medical cannabis: six hormone stages

  • Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Moller, I.M. and Murphy, A. (2015) Plant Physiology and Development, 6th edn. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer. Chapters 15-23 on hormones and development.

What's in the bag

Foliars: fast fixes, root signals

  • Fernandez, V., Sotiropoulos, T. and Brown, P. (2013) Foliar Fertilization: Scientific Principles and Field Practices. Paris: International Fertilizer Industry Association. https://www.fertilizer.org

Yucca and quillaja: make water wet

  • Fernandez, V., Sotiropoulos, T. and Brown, P. (2013) Foliar Fertilization: Scientific Principles and Field Practices. Paris: International Fertilizer Industry Association. https://www.fertilizer.org

Agronomy

Sample your soil like the lab expects

  • Hill Laboratories (2023) Soil Sampling Instructions and Analysis Request Form: Soil and Plant. Hamilton: R J Hill Laboratories. https://www.hill-labs.co.nz
  • Roberts, A.H.C. and Morton, J.D. (2016) Fertiliser Use on New Zealand Dairy Farms. Wellington: Fertiliser Association of New Zealand. Sampling depth and transect guidance.

Calcium, magnesium, and the one-off till

  • Albrecht, W.A. (1975) The Albrecht Papers, Vol. 1: Foundation Concepts. Kansas City: Acres USA.
  • Kopittke, P.M. and Menzies, N.W. (2007) 'A review of the use of the basic cation saturation ratio and the "ideal" soil', Soil Science Society of America Journal, 71(2), pp. 259-265. (The critical review; cited so growers see both sides.) https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2006.0186
  • Astera, M. (2014) The Ideal Soil v2.0: A Handbook for the New Agriculture. Soilminerals.com.

Too much of a good thing

  • Albrecht, W.A. (1975) The Albrecht Papers, Vol. 1: Foundation Concepts. Kansas City: Acres USA.
  • Kopittke, P.M. and Menzies, N.W. (2007) 'A review of the use of the basic cation saturation ratio and the "ideal" soil', Soil Science Society of America Journal, 71(2), pp. 259-265. (The critical review; cited so growers see both sides.) https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2006.0186
  • Astera, M. (2014) The Ideal Soil v2.0: A Handbook for the New Agriculture. Soilminerals.com.

What's blocking your minerals

  • Albrecht, W.A. (1975) The Albrecht Papers, Vol. 1: Foundation Concepts. Kansas City: Acres USA.
  • Kopittke, P.M. and Menzies, N.W. (2007) 'A review of the use of the basic cation saturation ratio and the "ideal" soil', Soil Science Society of America Journal, 71(2), pp. 259-265. (The critical review; cited so growers see both sides.) https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2006.0186
  • Astera, M. (2014) The Ideal Soil v2.0: A Handbook for the New Agriculture. Soilminerals.com.

Particle size sets the clock

  • Loganathan, P., Hedley, M.J. and Bolan, N.S. (2005) 'Reactive phosphate rock as a fertiliser', New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 48(1), pp. 55-72. Dissolution rate against particle size.

Nitrogen for the whole crop

  • Sullivan, D.M. and Andrews, N. (2019) Estimating Plant-Available Nitrogen Release from Organic Fertilisers, OSU Extension EM 9235. Corvallis: Oregon State University. https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/em9235
  • Gale, E.S., Sullivan, D.M., Cogger, C.G., Bary, A.I., Hemphill, D.D. and Myhre, E.A. (2006) 'Estimating plant-available nitrogen release from manures, composts, and specialty products', Journal of Environmental Quality, 35(6), pp. 2321-2332. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2006.0062
  • Di, H.J. and Cameron, K.C. (2002) 'Nitrate leaching in temperate agroecosystems: sources, factors and mitigating strategies', Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 64, pp. 237-256. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021471531188

Nitrate leaches, ammonium waits

  • Sullivan, D.M. and Andrews, N. (2019) Estimating Plant-Available Nitrogen Release from Organic Fertilisers, OSU Extension EM 9235. Corvallis: Oregon State University. https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/em9235
  • Gale, E.S., Sullivan, D.M., Cogger, C.G., Bary, A.I., Hemphill, D.D. and Myhre, E.A. (2006) 'Estimating plant-available nitrogen release from manures, composts, and specialty products', Journal of Environmental Quality, 35(6), pp. 2321-2332. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2006.0062
  • Di, H.J. and Cameron, K.C. (2002) 'Nitrate leaching in temperate agroecosystems: sources, factors and mitigating strategies', Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 64, pp. 237-256. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021471531188

Carbon decides when N shows up

  • Sullivan, D.M. and Andrews, N. (2019) Estimating Plant-Available Nitrogen Release from Organic Fertilisers, OSU Extension EM 9235. Corvallis: Oregon State University. https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/em9235
  • Gale, E.S., Sullivan, D.M., Cogger, C.G., Bary, A.I., Hemphill, D.D. and Myhre, E.A. (2006) 'Estimating plant-available nitrogen release from manures, composts, and specialty products', Journal of Environmental Quality, 35(6), pp. 2321-2332. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2006.0062
  • Di, H.J. and Cameron, K.C. (2002) 'Nitrate leaching in temperate agroecosystems: sources, factors and mitigating strategies', Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 64, pp. 237-256. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021471531188

Too much phosphorus switches mycorrhizae off

  • Breuillin, F. et al. (2010) 'Phosphate systemically inhibits development of arbuscular mycorrhiza in Petunia hybrida and represses genes involved in mycorrhizal functioning', The Plant Journal, 64(6), pp. 1002-1017. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04385.x

Soil pH, water pH: how to move it

  • Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R. (2016) The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edn. Harlow: Pearson. Chapter 9, soil acidity.

Just add compost

  • Standards New Zealand (2005) NZS 4454:2005 Composts, Soil Conditioners and Mulches. Wellington: Standards New Zealand.
  • Hill Laboratories Compost and Media Analysis Request Form. Hamilton: R J Hill Laboratories. https://www.hill-labs.co.nz

Everything in, nothing screened

  • Standards New Zealand (2005) NZS 4454:2005 Composts, Soil Conditioners and Mulches. Wellington: Standards New Zealand.
  • Hill Laboratories Compost and Media Analysis Request Form. Hamilton: R J Hill Laboratories. https://www.hill-labs.co.nz

More isn't better

  • Standards New Zealand (2005) NZS 4454:2005 Composts, Soil Conditioners and Mulches. Wellington: Standards New Zealand.
  • Hill Laboratories Compost and Media Analysis Request Form. Hamilton: R J Hill Laboratories. https://www.hill-labs.co.nz

It's all marketing

Minerals and what they do

Nitrogen: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Phosphorus: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Potassium: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Calcium: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).
  • White, P.J. and Broadley, M.R. (2003) 'Calcium in plants', Annals of Botany, 92(4), pp. 487-511. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcg164

Magnesium: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Sulphur: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Iron: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Manganese: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Zinc: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Copper: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Boron: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).
  • White, P.J. and Broadley, M.R. (2003) 'Calcium in plants', Annals of Botany, 92(4), pp. 487-511. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcg164

Molybdenum: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).

Silicon: what it does

  • Marschner, P. (ed.) (2012) Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd edn. London: Academic Press. Chapters 6 (macronutrients) and 7 (micronutrients).
  • Epstein, E. (1999) 'Silicon', Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 50, pp. 641-664. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.50.1.641

Linked resources